Executive Summary
Poverty and Gender Profile for the Baalbeck-Hermel Region
1. Content and Scope of the Study
The goal of the study, as specified in the contract, is to determine a "poverty and gender profile" for the Baalbeck-Hermel region. The study also aims at making recommendations and proposing courses of action to address problems of the region.The specific objectives of this study are the following:
To review and analyze the data provided on the Baalbeck-Hermel region in "the Household and Population Database Survey" carried out in 1996 by the Ministry of Social Affairs (MOSA) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA);To determine a poverty profile of the region in order to arrive at defining poverty lines in the region, the extent and severity of poverty, and the characteristics of the poor in the region;
Determine a gender profile of the region to define the rate and characteristics of female economic participation in the region, access to resources and assets, access to and participation in the decision making process at the household level, and other similar indicator;
Arrive at critical areas that need intervention in the region that can assist in decreasing the primary causes of poverty and gender problems that exist in the region.
The obligations of the working team, as defined by the contract, include the revision of data on the region, preparation of the technical file, training of field surveyors, implementation and supervision of the field surveys, analysis and interpretation of the results, and writing the final report.
The study is divided into two main parts: a comprehensive report and statistical annexes. The report commences with an introductory chapter that outlines its objectives and methodology. The second chapter provides a poverty profile for the region, and studies the extent and depth of poverty, as well as the characteristics of the poor. This chapter also provides a gender profile of the poor in Baalbeck and Hermel. The third chapter provides an overview of some vital demographic, educational, and economic indicators for the two Cazas of Baalbeck and Hermel. Data contained within these two chapters is based on the field survey. The fourth chapter of the study includes a review of the available data on two Cazas in the MOSA survey. The study finally concludes with a set of recommendations for future intervention in the region.
2. Poverty in the Baalbeck- Hermel Region
Poverty is defined as the "inability to attain a minimal standard of living". The report uses upper and lower absolute poverty lines, where households and families are classified as poor, non-poor, or very poor, based on their position relative to a fixed poverty line.Poverty lines have been determined based on the cost of a minimum consumption basket, founded on the food necessary for a recommended calorie intake, and augmented by an allowance for nonfood needs consistent with the spending patterns of the poor themselves. The lower poverty line is defined as the minimum income/ expenditure needed to satisfy the cost of a minimum consumption basket based on the necessary food for recommended calories intake per individual and hence, household. The population below this poverty line are considered very poor. The upper poverty line is defined as the minimum income/ expenditure needed to satisfy the cost of the needed dietary allowance for recommended calorie intake, augmented by an allowance for nonfood items. In the case of this study, food is considered to comprise 51% of the total expenditure of poor families which is the share of family consumption for families with the lowest consumption brackets, i.e. families with monthly expenditure levels below LBP 600 thousand. The poverty lines determined in this study are region specific, and have been calculated based on the Least Cost Diet methodology (LCD). The status of each family (whether below or above the lower poverty line) is determined based on the family's unique family LCD and income level 2.1 Poverty Indicators
The lower poverty line for the region of Baalbeck- Hermel is equivalent to LBP 498,591 per month (approximately US $332) for an average household with 5.26 members. The upper poverty line for the region of is equivalent to LBP 977630 per month (around US $652) for an average household with 5.26 members.
The headcount index for the region is equivalent to 25.5% of households relative to the lower poverty line, and 58% of households (and 65% of the population) relative to the upper poverty line.
The poverty gap for the sample is approximately US$ 1.85 million per year, and US$ 86 million for the region as a whole. The poverty gap index for the Baalbeck- Hermel region amounts to 30.4%.
The inequality in the distribution of income and wealth is exhibited as follows: around 50% of the population in the region only control around 20% of the total income, while 10% of the population control more than 30% of the total income.
2.2 Poverty Profile
2.2.1 Demographic Characteristics
Poor families are larger than non-poor families with a higher number of family members and more children. The average size of poor families in Baalbeck and Hermel is large (5.9 members), and is observed to be higher than the average for the region as a whole (5.2 members) and much higher than that for Lebanon (4.7 members). The age structure of the poor families is youthful, with 66% of the poor population below the age of 30 years (of whom 38% are below the age of 15 years). This structure is more youthful than the population of the region as a whole (62% are below the age of 30 years of whom 33% are below the age of 15 years). Poor families have more children, with an average number of children per family amounting to 3.7, as compared to 3.1 for the region as a whole. Slightly more than half of the poor in Baalbeck and Hermel are females. Finally, the dependency ratio in poor families is very high (79%), reflecting the high average number of children per family.
2.2.2 Education Characteristics
Primary enrollment rates in poor families are high, but school drop-out rates after the elementary level for children of poor families is also high. Gross primary enrollment for poor families is estimated at 93%, and is slightly lower than the gross primary enrollment rate for the population in the region as a whole (95%). Although gross primary enrollment in poor families is high, education enrollment drops drastically after the age of fourteen years. Enrollment of the poor in older age groups is lower than that for the population as a whole. The majority of the poor have low educational status, lower than that for the population of the region as a whole (4.1%). The educational enrollment profile of the poor differ per Caza within the region, and is worse in Hermel as compared to Baalbeck.
Poor families have higher illiteracy rates, and amounts to 15%, and is much higher in Hermel (20.5%) than in Baalbeck (13.2%). Illiteracy among poor members is higher than the aggregate percentage for the region as a whole (13.6%).
2.2.3 Employment Patterns
Poor families have lower economic activity. The total labor force in poor families in Baalbeck and Hermel is estimated to comprise around 24% of the total poor population in the area, and is lower than that for the population as a whole (27.6%). The labor force in poor families constitutes around 43% of the poor population aged 15-64 years. As is the case for the labor force in general, economic activity in poor families starts to decline after the age of 35 years, with a peak for the 25-34 year age group. Entry of the poor into the labor force is early, with 1% in the 10-14 year age group (0% for the population in the region) and 10% in the 15-19 year bracket (as compared to 8% for the region as a whole for the same age group). The average number of workers in poor families is lower than that for the population as a whole.
Unemployment in poor families is high (12% of total labor force in poor population), and are highest among those who were previously employed. The duration of unemployment is dangerously high. Unemployment in Baalbeck is higher than that in Hermel (13% and 11%, respectively).
The major occupational categories for the poor are artisanat and handicraft work (23%), as well as skilled employment in the agricultural sector (22%). Other important occupational categories for the poor in the region include sales and marketing (10.9%), unskilled employment (10.8%), and employment in the operation of machinery (10.8%).
Unskilled employment also proves to be a major source of livelihood for the poor. This is also true for the case of skilled employment in agriculture (22.5%). It is noted that more of the poor are employed in these occupations that the labor force in the region as a whole.
Small scale self employment is the major status in work for the majority of the poor in Baalbeck- Hermel. When compared with the population in the region as a whole, a higher percentage of the poor are employed as seasonal labor (16.5%) and unpaid family aid (10.3%), and less as monthly wage earners. Paid employment constitutes 29.3% of the labor force in poor families. The percentage of wage earners among the poor is lower than that for the region as a whole (38%). Small scale self employment consumes almost 50% of total workers in Hermel, and is observed to be a higher feature in this Caza as compared to Baalbeck, whereas wage employment is more pronounced in Baalbeck. ?Self employment in the occupational categories of skilled employment in agriculture and artisanat is significant. Seasonal employment is most significant for skilled workers in agriculture, an occupational category that also consumes the majority of unpaid family aid workers. Wage employment is most significant for workers in the military forces.
Agriculture constitutes the major source of livelihood for the poor (27.6%), followed by employment in the commerce (17.5%)and construction (15%) sectors. Agriculture as a major sector of employment is more important for the poor than it is for the labor force in the region as a whole, as is also the case for the sector of construction.
A higher percentage of the poor have secondary employment as compared to the general population in the region.
2.2.4 Income and Consumption Patterns
Wages and profit constitute the highest proportion of the poor household 's income. Other sources of income for the poor are marginal for poor families. Poor families also depend on remittances and allowances that constitute around 8% of the total value of poor household wages. Since the poor have little control over assets and resources, income from these resources (such as agricultural land and interest) only account for a low percentage of the total household income for the poor. It is noted that the income patterns in terms of the sources of income for the non-poor are more diversified than they are for the poor. The non-poor derive a higher percentage of their household income from assets, depend less on remittances, and more on allowances than the poor.Expenditure on food related items consumes the highest share of poor family expenditure structure. Poor families are also burdened by expenditure on education (12.9%), transportation (9.2%) and health (6.6%). Family consumption patterns vary widely with the household expenditure bracket. Expenditure on food items and health services decline as the family expenditure bracket increases, whereas expenditures related to education increase as the consumption level of the family increases.
2.2.5 Access to Assets
The poor have little access to resources, whether in the form of capital (credit) or in the form of equipment.
2.2.6 Living Standards
The majority of the poor are dissatisfied with their current living standards. Living standards differ between the two Cazas of Baalbeck and Hermel. The level of dissatisfaction of the residents of Hermel is higher than that in Baalbeck. When asked on their views on the minimum monthly salary sufficient to cover household expenses, the average estimated by the residents were very close to the poverty lines determined in the context of the study.
Food constitutes the highest expenditure burden on poor families, followed by education and health related expenses.
2.2.7 Housing Conditions
The majority of poor families live in individual housing units and do not have adequate access to basic infrastructure. Poor families face problems due to small housing units, old housing units, and difficult access to their houses. The poor have lower access to basic infrastructure facilities than the population in the region as whole. Around 56% of poor houses are connected to public water networks, 17% have access to artesian well, 17.8% of poor houses are connected to public sewer systems and 62.8% use sanitary pits. Access to basic infrastructure is even lower in Hermel as compared to Baalbeck.
The majority of poor families live in small housing: 55% of poor families live in houses with 1-2 rooms. Around 64% of families in Baalbeck Hermel region are found to live under very crowded housing conditions (as compared to 34% of the population in the region), whereas only 18% have good conditions (as compared to 38% for the region as a whole).
2.2.8 Access to Health Services
The poor in Baalbeck- Hermel have limited access to health services. Whenever possible, poor families resort to dispensaries and health centers operated by non-governmental organizations for acquiring basic preventive and curative health services. Furthermore, the poor have lower access to hospitalization (only 32% of the poor as compared to 65% of the non-poor).
2.3 Poverty and Gender
2.3.1 Gender Inequality in Access to Education in Poor Families
Educational enrollment ratios in poor families is higher for males than that for females. Furthermore, illiteracy falls negatively and dis-proportionally on females in poor families (24% of the total females in poor families are illiterate). This gender bias in the access to education and in the rates of illiteracy in poor families is a feature of gender inequality. Since education has a strong impact on poverty and income inequality, such inequalities are important pre-determinants of poverty status.
Females in poor families have lower educational status than males. Gender bias in educational status in poor families is not observed in the pre-elementary and elementary levels. However, gender bias is poor families especially observed in the secondary level. Gender bias is observed in the choice of the type of schooling in poor families.
2.3.2 Gender Inequality in Access to Production Employment in Poor Families
Economic activity among females in poor families is relatively low (females constitute 12% of the total labor force of the poor). Unemployment among females in poor families is equivalent to 7%, as compared to 13% for males.
More females in poor families work as seasonal labor and family aid (21% of the poor female labor force are seasonal workers and 20% are family aid). It is observed that a these percentages are higher for poor females as compared to the female labor force in the region as a whole.
Agriculture consumes the highest percentage of the female labor force in poor families, with 36% of the female labor force in poor families work in agriculture (as compared to 26% of the male labor force). The share of agriculture of the poor female labor force is also observed to be higher than that for female labor force in the region in general.
The living status of women is very much linked to the pattern of their employment and to their position in the labor market. Poor women are concentrated in economic activities with low earning levels, are irregular and insecure in their employment.
2.3.3 Gender Inequality in Income
Female workers in poor families earn lower incomes than males. Gender bias in the level of income earned is evident: the vast majority of female workers in poor families earn less than LBP 300 thousand per month (79%) as compared to 37% of males with the same level of income. One of the reasons for gender bias in the level of income earned is the concentration of females in low skilled, low status jobs, as well as wage discrimination.
2.4 Female Heads of Households
Around 13% of the households in the region are headed by females, the majority of whom are widows (82%). Some 8.5% of female heads of households are single and are responsible for the income of their families. Most of them are illiterate (80%). Although they are responsible for household income, only 16% of females heads of households are employed. Small scale entrepreneurial activities in the informal sector constitute the major source of income for females heads of households. Seasonal employment also constitutes the primary source of income for 27.8% of these females. The majority of female heads of households work in agriculture (33%), followed by commerce and education (27.8% for each category). Finally, he majority of these women earn a monthly income less than LBP 600 thousand (94.4%), of whom 77.7% earn a monthly income below the minimum wage rate declared by the Government.
3. Gender Access and Control Profile
Ownership of assets is, in the majority of cases, male dominated. Females have extremely restricted control over physical and financial assets. Around 85% of houses are owned by husbands or sons, 92% of land ownership is in the hands of male members of the family, and only 2% of industrial or agricultural equipment is owned by wives or daughters. The case is worse in poor families. Female control over assets determines, to a high extent, poverty and social status, and consequently the extent to which these females have a chance of escaping poverty. The female lack of ownership to physical assets impedes the access to other inputs that would improve their living status. Furthermore, the issue of female control over assets determines the degree to which she controls the returns from these assets
There is a clear division in gender roles within families in the region. Female members of the family are primarily responsible for reproductive roles, whereas male members are primarily involved in productive employment. Reproductive activities are carried by females within the household, whereas productive roles are done by males. The production of handicrafts are female dominated, but males also control the market process. Even when female members of the family are involved in productive roles, such as the production and marketing of handicrafts and assistance in agriculture, such chores are not counted formally as female employment. This is the traditional double burden than women carry: they produce and their production results in income generation for the family, while this contribution is not formally recognized, neither by the males of the family, nor by these females themselves. Furthermore, their reproductive tasks are not considered because they are not attached to a market- monetary value, and thus they become part of the routine tasks carried by these women.
The access of females to the decision making process within the family is observed to be extremely limited. The case is worse in poor families.
4. Social and Economic Conditions with a Gender Perspective
4.1 Demographic Characteristics
The population of the region is youthful, with 62.5% below the age of 30 years (out of whom 33% are below the age of 15 years). This age structure is more youthful than that for Lebanon as a whole with an estimated 29.2% of the population is below the age 15 years. The average family size in Baalbeck- Hermel region is big (5.2 individuals) as compared to the national average (4.7 individuals).
4.2 Education
Around 35% of the population in Baalbeck and Hermel are currently enrolled in some type of education, whereas 42% were previously enrolled, and 14% have never had any form of previous education. School enrollment is highest for children aged 5-9 years (95%), and remains high for those aged 10-14 years (94%). Enrollment rates drastically declines after the age of 14 years
The educational status per gender is somewhat equitable between males and females, especially for levels below the intermediate level. However, the percentage of those who have secondary education status shows some bias in favor of males. As is the case for the country as a whole, the percentage enrollment in private schools is higher that that for public schools. Percentage enrollment in public schools in the region is higher than the national average. The educational enrollment per type of schooling in the region shows some gender bias, with higher female enrollment in public schooling systems.
Illiteracy in the region amounts to 13.6%, and is much higher for females than for males (6% for males and 21% for females). Illiteracy is higher in older age groups.
4.3 Economic Activity
The total labor force (including those who are employed, unemployed, and first time job seekers) in Baalbeck and Hermel is estimated to comprise around 27.6% of the total population in the area. This is lower than the economic activity for Lebanon as a whole, and is mainly attributed to the low economic participation of females and the youthful structure of the population in the area. Females only constitute around 15% of the total labor force in the area. The female economic activity rate out of the total female population above 15 years of age is estimated at 8%. As is the case for the Lebanese labor force in general, the highest economic activity rate is observed for the 25-29 year age group. Entry into the labor market occurs at an early age with 8% of the labor force being in the 15-19 year age bracket. Economic activity begins to decline after the age of 29 years. In contrast to the general educational profile of the labor force in Lebanon, the highest proportion of those who are currently employed in Baalbeck- Hermel have low educational qualifications.
Unemployment in the area is estimated at 10% of the labor force (6% for females and 10% for males), of whom 46% are first time job seekers. Unemployment is observed to decline with age, and is highly associated with low educational status.
The highest percentage of workers in Baalbeck- Hermel are employed in the artisans and handicrafts small scale activities (20%) that include small scale self employed workers, followed by those employed as skilled workers in the agricultural sector (17.9%). Other important occupational categories in the region include sales and marketing, middle level employment in health education and services, and education.
Several discrepancies are found based on occupation per gender in the region. The highest proportion of males are employed as workers in artisans and handicrafts activities and skilled workers in agriculture, whereas 30% of females are employed as teachers and education specialists, and as skilled workers in agriculture. Also, the highest proportion of unskilled workers are females.
The highest concentration of the labor force in Baalbeck- Hermel are paid monthly employees (38%), followed by those who are self employed in enterprises that do not have any employees (31%). The percentage of paid employment out of the total labor force in the region amounts to 38% and is observed to be lower than the national average (66%). The status in work varies based on gender. Female labor is highly associated with seasonal employment and unpaid family labor, whereas male economic activity is highly associated with small scale self employment.
The highest proportion of workers in Baalbeck and Hermel are employed in the agricultural sector (22.1%), followed by the sector of commerce (18.5%). Gender variations in the distribution of the labor force per economic sector exist. Agriculture and commerce comprise the highest percentage of the male labor force, whereas the highest proportion of female workers are either employed in the educational or the agricultural sector, together employing more than 60% of the female labor force.
4.4 Income
The individual income scales in the region are generally low. Around 67% of workers in Baalbeck and Hermel have a monthly income below LBP 600 thousand, of whom 28% have a monthly income less than the minimum wage rate declared by the Government (LBP 300 thousand). Gender variations in income levels are evident, where the highest proportion of the female labor force with monthly incomes below LBP 300 thousand (51%).
Low income levels are primarily associated with small scale self-employment activities The average wages of paid employees are low with 52.7% of them earning between LBP 300 thousand and LBP 600 thousand per month.
Lowest income levels are associated with the sector of agriculture, followed by construction (57.2% and 33% of workers in agriculture and construction, respectively, have monthly incomes below LBP 300 thousand).
The average number of workers per family in the region amounts to 1.56 (1.61 in Baalbeck and 1.31 in Hermel). Around 33% of families have monthly incomes below LBP 600 thousand (of whom 11.2% have monthly incomes below LBP 300 thousand). Average monthly incomes are higher in Baalbeck than in Hermel. Wages and profit constitute the highest proportion of household income (74%), followed by the allowances (6.2%). Income stemming from agricultural land does not constitute more than 5% of total income, whereas retirement contribute with 4.3% of total household income.
4.5 Household Expenditure/ Consumption
The highest percentage of households in Baalbeck and Hermel have a monthly expenditure bracket of LBP 600 thousand- 1 million (31.1%). Average figures for the whole region indicate that food related expenses have the highest share of total family expenditure (38.2%), followed by education (11.19%), transportation (10.88), and house utilities (7.09%). Health related expenses only account for 6% of total family expenditure, close to the level of expenditure on personal items (5.79%). Family consumption patterns vary widely with the household income/ expenditure bracket.
4.6 Living Standards: Household Perception
In general, families in the area are dissatisfied with their current living standard. Around 52.6% of households indicate that their income is not sufficient to cover their expenses, and 17.8% indicate that their income is barely sufficient to ensure an acceptable living standard. Living standards differ between the two Cazas, and are lower in Hermel.
4.7 Housing
Around 52% of families in the region of Baalbeck- Hermel live in individual houses. Only 53% of houses are connected to public water networks, and 24% have access to artesian wells. The highest proportion of houses use sanitary pits (68%), and only 26% are connected to public sewer systems. Around 34% of families in Baalbeck Hermel region are found to live under very crowded housing conditions, whereas 38% have good crowding conditions.
4.8 Agricultural Assets
Around 41.6% of families do not own agricultural land. Land ownership is fragmented, with 48.6% farmers owning less than 10 dunums (1000 square meters), and 20% of owned land has a total area between 10-20 dunums. This indicates that the highest proportion of farmers who own land are small scale farmers with fragmented cultivation areas.
4.9 Access to Health and Education Services
Only 53% of households in Baalbeck and Hermel have access to health centers and dispensaries. Around 72% of these health centers are operated by non-governmental organizations, and only 9.8% are operated by the public sector. Around 54% of households do not have access to hospitals in the region. The highest proportion of available hospitals are privately owned (74%). Access to hospitals is higher for the residents of Baalbeck as compared to families in Hermel
The highest proportion of the residents in the area have access to elementary schools (96% of families have elementary schools within their villages). Access to education institutions declines as the educational level increases.
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